Abstract
The focus of this review is on the role of apolipoprotein C-II (apoC-II) in lipoprotein
metabolism and the potential effects on the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD).
We searched PubMed/Scopus for articles regarding apoC-II and its role in lipoprotein
metabolism and the risk of CVD. Apolipoprotein C-II is a constituent of chylomicrons,
very low-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, and high-density lipoprotein
(HDL). Apolipoprotein C-II contains 3 amphipathic α-helices. The lipid-binding domain of apoC-II is located in the N-terminal, whereas
the C-terminal helix of apoC-II is responsible for the interaction with lipoprotein
lipase (LPL). At intermediate concentrations (approximately 4 mg/dL) and in normolipidemic
subjects, apoC-II activates LPL. In contrast, both an excess and a deficiency of apoC-II
are associated with reduced LPL activity and hypertriglyceridemia. Furthermore, excess
apoC-II has been associated with increased triglyceride-rich particles and alterations
in HDL particle distribution, factors that may increase the risk of CVD. However,
there is not enough current evidence to clarify whether increased apoC-II causes hypertriglyceridemia
or is an epiphenomenon reflecting hypertriglyceridemia. A number of pharmaceutical
interventions, including statins, fibrates, ezetimibe, nicotinic acid, and orlistat,
have been shown to reduce the increased apoC-II concentrations. An excess of apoC-II
is associated with increased triglyceride-rich particles and alterations in HDL particle
distribution. However, prospective trials are needed to assess if apoC-II is a CVD
marker or a risk factor in high-risk patients.
To read this article in full you will need to make a payment
Purchase one-time access:
Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online accessOne-time access price info
- For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
- For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'
Subscribe:
Subscribe to Metabolism - Clinical and ExperimentalAlready a print subscriber? Claim online access
Already an online subscriber? Sign in
Register: Create an account
Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect
References
- Role of ApoCs in lipoprotein metabolism: functional differences between ApoC1, ApoC2, and ApoC3.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999; 19: 472-484
- Apolipoprotein C-III: understanding an emerging cardiovascular risk factor.Clin Sci (Lond). 2008; 114: 611-624
- The intestine as a regulator of cholesterol homeostasis in diabetes.Atheroscler Suppl. 2008; 9: 27-32
- Apolipoprotein B100 biogenesis: a complex array of intracellular mechanisms regulating folding, stability, and lipoprotein assembly.Biochem Cell Biol. 2010; 88: 251-267
- Abnormal hepatic apolipoprotein B metabolism in type 2 diabetes.Atherosclerosis. 2010; 211: 353-360
- Responses to eating: lipoproteins, lipolytic products and atherosclerosis.Curr Opin Lipidol. 2000; 11: 235-241
- Lipoprotein lipase and lipolysis: central roles in lipoprotein metabolism and atherogenesis.J Lipid Res. 1996; 37: 693-707
- Differences in apolipoprotein and lipid composition between human chylomicron remnants and very low density lipoproteins isolated from fasting and postprandial plasma.J Lipid Res. 1998; 39: 1412-1420
- Postprandial lipoprotein metabolism and atherosclerosis.J Intern Med. 1999; 246: 341-355
- Remnant lipoprotein metabolism: key pathways involving cell-surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and apolipoprotein E.J Lipid Res. 1999; 40: 1-16
- LDL receptor–related protein 1: unique tissue-specific functions revealed by selective gene knockout studies.Physiol Rev. 2008; 88: 887-918
- Syndecan-1 is the primary heparan sulfate proteoglycan mediating hepatic clearance of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins in mice.J Clin Invest. 2009; 119: 3236-3245
- Atherogenic remnant lipoproteins: role for proteoglycans in trapping, transferring, and internalizing.J Clin Invest. 2007; 117: 94-98
- Molecular processes that handle—and mishandle—dietary lipids.J Clin Invest. 2008; 118: 3247-3259
- New insights into the regulation of HDL metabolism and reverse cholesterol transport.Circ Res. 2005; 96: 1221-1232
- Lipases and HDL metabolism.Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2002; 13: 174-178
- Apolipoprotein gene expression in the rabbit: abundance, size, and distribution of apolipoprotein mRNA species in different tissues.J Lipid Res. 1988; 29: 755-764
- Distribution of apolipoprotein A-I, C-II, C-III, and E mRNA in fetal human tissues. Time-dependent induction of apolipoprotein E mRNA by cultures of human monocyte-macrophages.Biochemistry. 1985; 24: 4450-4455
- The isolation and characterization of cDNA clones for human apolipoprotein CII.J Biol Chem. 1984; 259: 4401-4404
- Expression of the apolipoprotein C-II gene during myelomonocytic differentiation of human leukemic cells.J Leukoc Biol. 2001; 69: 645-650
- Regulated expression of the apolipoprotein E/C-I/C-IV/C-II gene cluster in murine and human macrophages. A critical role for nuclear liver X receptors alpha and beta.J Biol Chem. 2002; 277: 31900-31908
- Structure and expression of the mouse apolipoprotein C2 gene.Genomics. 1993; 17: 45-51
- Plasma apolipoprotein secretion by human monocyte-derived macrophages.Biochim Biophys Acta. 1985; 834: 256-262
- Isolation and sequence of a human apolipoprotein CII cDNA clone and its use to isolate and map to human chromosome 19 the gene for apolipoprotein CII.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984; 81: 2945-2949
- The apolipoprotein multigene family: biosynthesis, structure, structure-function relationships, and evolution.J Lipid Res. 1988; 29: 245-271
- Two hepatic enhancers, HCR.1 and HCR.2, coordinate the liver expression of the entire human apolipoprotein E/C-I/C-IV/C-II gene cluster.J Biol Chem. 1997; 272: 29113-29119
- A short proximal promoter and the distal hepatic control region–1 (HCR-1) contribute to the liver specificity of the human apolipoprotein C-II gene. Hepatic enhancement by HCR-1 requires two proximal hormone response elements which have different binding specificities for orphan receptors HNF-4, ARP-1, and EAR-2.J Biol Chem. 1998; 273: 4188-4196
- Synergism between nuclear receptors bound to specific hormone response elements of the hepatic control region–1 and the proximal apolipoprotein C-II promoter mediate apolipoprotein C-II gene regulation by bile acids and retinoids.Biochem J. 2003; 372: 291-304
- Tgif1 represses apolipoprotein gene expression in liver.J Cell Biochem. 2010; 111: 380-390
- Developmental and pharmacological regulation of apolipoprotein C-II gene expression. Comparison with apo C-I and apo C-III gene regulation.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999; 19: 115-121
- Regulation of lipogenic enzyme gene expression by nutrients and hormones.Faseb J. 1994; 8: 36-42
- Apolipoprotein C-II promoter T–>A substitution at position -190 affects on the transcription of the gene and its relationship to hyperlipemia.Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2007; 354: 62-65
- A thymidine to cytosine substitution for codon 26 of exon 3 of apolipoprotein C-II gene in a patient with apolipoprotein C-II deficiency.Intern Med. 1999; 38: 140-144
- Detection of mutations in the apolipoprotein CII gene by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Identification of the splice site variant apolipoprotein CII-Hamburg in a patient with severe hypertriglyceridemia.Clin Chem. 1998; 44: 1388-1396
- Structure of the human apolipoprotein C-II gene promoter.Z Gastroenterol. 1996; 34: 49-50
- Apolipoprotein CII-Padova (Tyr37–>stop) as a cause of chylomicronaemia in an Italian kindred from Siculiana.J Med Genet. 1994; 31: 622-626
- The apolipoprotein C-II variant apoC-IILys19–>Thr is not associated with dyslipidemia in an affected kindred.Clin Genet. 1994; 45: 292-297
- A new case of apo C-II deficiency with a nonsense mutation in the apo C-II gene.Clin Chim Acta. 1994; 224: 111-118
- A missense mutation (Trp 26–>Arg) in exon 3 of the apolipoprotein CII gene in a patient with apolipoprotein CII deficiency (apo CII-Wakayama).Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1993; 193: 1174-1183
- Apo C-II deficiency type Bari.Eur J Epidemiol. 1992; 8: 64-70
- ApoC-IIParis2: a premature termination mutation in the signal peptide of apoC-II resulting in the familial chylomicronemia syndrome.J Lipid Res. 1992; 33: 361-367
- Apolipoprotein C-II deficiency syndrome due to apo C-IIHamburg: clinical and biochemical features and HphI restriction enzyme polymorphism.Eur J Clin Invest. 1992; 22: 88-95
- Apolipoprotein C-II deficiency: identification of a structural variant ApoC-II Padova.Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1988; 154: 73-79
- Apolipoprotein C-II deficiency associated with nonfunctional mutant forms of apolipoprotein C-II.Can J Biochem Cell Biol. 1984; 62: 847-852
- Donor splice site mutation in the apolipoprotein (Apo) C-II gene (Apo C-IIHamburg) of a patient with Apo C-II deficiency.J Clin Invest. 1988; 82: 1489-1494
- A G+1 to C mutation in a donor splice site of intron 2 in the apolipoprotein (apo) C-II gene in a patient with apo C-II deficiency. A possible interaction between apo C-II deficiency and apo E4 in a severely hypertriglyceridemic patient.Atherosclerosis. 1997; 130: 153-160
- An initiation codon mutation in the apoC-II gene (apoC-II Paris) of a patient with a deficiency of apolipoprotein C-II.J Biol Chem. 1989; 264: 20839-20842
- Structure of apolipoprotein C-IIToronto, a nonfunctional human apolipoprotein.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987; 84: 270-273
- A deletion mutation in the ApoC-II gene (ApoC-II Nijmegen) of a patient with a deficiency of apolipoprotein C-II.J Biol Chem. 1988; 263: 17913-17916
- No severe bottleneck during human evolution: evidence from two apolipoprotein C-II deficiency alleles.Am J Hum Genet. 1991; 48: 383-389
- A nonsense mutation in the apolipoprotein C-IIPadova gene in a patient with apolipoprotein C-II deficiency.J Clin Invest. 1989; 84: 1215-1219
- Identification of the mutation responsible for a case of plasmatic apolipoprotein CII deficiency (Apo CII-Bari).Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1990; 168: 1118-1127
- Structure and functional properties of apolipoprotein C-II.Prog Lipid Res. 1991; 30: 253-258
- Global structure and dynamics of human apolipoprotein CII in complex with micelles: evidence for increased mobility of the helix involved in the activation of lipoprotein lipase.Biochemistry. 2003; 42: 1872-1889
- Helix-helix association of a lipid-bound amphipathic alpha-helix derived from apolipoprotein C-II.Biochemistry. 1999; 38: 10878-10884
- Activation of lipoprotein lipase by native and acylated peptides of apolipoprotein C-II.Biochim Biophys Acta. 1979; 573: 501-509
- Functional analyses of human apolipoprotein CII by site-directed mutagenesis: identification of residues important for activation of lipoprotein lipase.J Biol Chem. 2002; 277: 4334-4342
- NMR structure of human apolipoprotein C-II in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate.Biochemistry. 2001; 40: 5414-5421
- Site-directed mutagenesis of apolipoprotein CII to probe the role of its secondary structure for activation of lipoprotein lipase.J Biol Chem. 2010; 285: 7484-7492
- Structure of a biologically active fragment of human serum apolipoprotein C-II in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate and dodecylphosphocholine.Biochim Biophys Acta. 2000; 1486: 253-264
- The structure and interactions of human apolipoprotein C-II in dodecyl phosphocholine.Biochemistry. 2004; 43: 8084-8093
- Missense mutation Leu72Pro located on the carboxyl terminal amphipathic helix of apolipoprotein C-II causes familial chylomicronemia syndrome.Clin Chim Acta. 2006; 364: 256-259
- Human apolipoprotein C-II forms twisted amyloid ribbons and closed loops.Biochemistry. 2000; 39: 8276-8283
- Cross-linking and amyloid formation by N- and C-terminal cysteine derivatives of human apolipoprotein C-II.Biochemistry. 2002; 41: 14313-14322
- The circularization of amyloid fibrils formed by apolipoprotein C-II.Biophys J. 2003; 85: 3979-3990
- A structural model for apolipoprotein C-II amyloid fibrils: experimental characterization and molecular dynamics simulations.J Mol Biol. 2011; 405: 1246-1266
- The structural basis for amyloid formation by plasma apolipoproteins: a review.Eur Biophys J. 2002; 31: 2-8
- Oxidized cholesterol metabolites found in human atherosclerotic lesions promote apolipoprotein C-II amyloid fibril formation.Biochemistry. 2007; 46: 5552-5561
- Shear flow induced changes in apolipoprotein C-II conformation and amyloid fibril formation.Biochemistry. 2011; 50: 4046-4057
- Effect of oxidation and mutation on the conformational dynamics and fibril assembly of amyloidogenic peptides derived from apolipoprotein C-II.J Phys Chem B. 2009; 113: 14006-14014
- The molecular chaperone, alpha-crystallin, inhibits amyloid formation by apolipoprotein C-II.J Biol Chem. 2001; 276: 33755-33761
- Suppression of apolipoprotein C-II amyloid formation by the extracellular chaperone, clusterin.Eur J Biochem. 2002; 269: 2789-2794
- Fibrillar amyloid protein present in atheroma activates CD36 signal transduction.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 10643-10648
- Serum amyloid P colocalizes with apolipoproteins in human atheroma: functional implications.J Lipid Res. 2007; 48: 2162-2171
- Quantitative determination of apolipoproteins C-I and C-II in human plasma by separate electroimmunoassays.Clin Chem. 1981; 27: 543-548
- Abnormal activation of lipoprotein lipase by non-equilibrating apoC-II: further evidence for the presence of non-equilibrating pools of apolipoproteins C-II and C-III in plasma lipoproteins.J Lipid Res. 1993; 34: 1793-1803
- Lipoprotein ApoC-II activation of lipoprotein lipase. Modulation by apolipoprotein A-IV.J Biol Chem. 1990; 265: 4266-4272
- Effects of plasma apolipoproteins on lipoprotein lipase-mediated lipolysis of small and large lipid emulsions.Biochim Biophys Acta. 2003; 1632: 31-39
- Differential effects of apolipoprotein E isoforms on lipolysis of very low-density lipoprotein triglycerides.Metabolism. 2006; 55: 1129-1134
- Reference intervals for serum apolipoproteins A-I, A-II, B, C-II, C-III, and E in healthy Japanese determined with a commercial immunoturbidimetric assay and effects of sex, age, smoking, drinking, and Lp(a) level.Clin Chim Acta. 2001; 312: 87-95
- A specific apoprotein activator for lipoprotein lipase.Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1970; 41: 57-62
- Comparison of apolipoprotein C-II-deficient triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins and trioleoylglycerol/phosphatidylcholine-stabilized particles as substrates for lipoprotein lipase.Biochim Biophys Acta. 1986; 875: 211-219
- Apolipoprotein C-II deficiency syndrome. Clinical features, lipoprotein characterization, lipase activity, and correction of hypertriglyceridemia after apolipoprotein C-II administration in two affected patients.J Clin Invest. 1986; 77: 520-527
- Current concepts in triglyceride metabolism, pathophysiology, and treatment.Metabolism. 2010; 59: 1210-1220
- Clinical importance and therapeutic modulation of small dense low-density lipoprotein particles.Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2007; 7: 53-72
- Familial lipoprotein lipase and apolipoprotein C-II deficiency. Lipoprotein and apoprotein analysis, adipose tissue and hepatic lipoprotein lipase levels in seven patients and their first degree relatives.Atherosclerosis. 1983; 49: 55-68
- Influence of apolipoproteinCII concentrations on HDL subclass distribution.J Atheroscler Thromb. 2009; 16: 611-620
- Diacylglycerol oil for apolipoprotein C-II deficiency.QJM. 2007; 100: 247-248
- Inheritance of apolipoprotein C-II deficiency with hypertriglyceridemia and pancreatitis.N Engl J Med. 1978; 299: 1421-1424
- Heterozygous apolipoprotein C-II deficiency: lipoprotein and apoprotein phenotype and RsaI restriction enzyme polymorphism in the Apo C-IIPadova kindred.Eur J Clin Invest. 1993; 23: 522-528
- Apolipoprotein and lipoprotein concentrations in familial apolipoprotein C-II deficiency.Atherosclerosis. 1982; 44: 223-235
- Electrophoretic screening for human apolipoprotein C-II variants: repeated identification of apolipoprotein C-II(K19T).J Mol Med. 1995; 73: 373-378
- Interaction between variant apolipoproteins C-II and E that affects plasma lipoprotein concentrations.Arterioscler Thromb. 1991; 11: 1303-1309
- Allelic variants of apolipoproteins B and CII genes in patients with ischemic heart disease and in healthy persons from the Moscow population.Genetika. 1995; 31: 1001-1009
- Resistant hypertriglyceridemia in a patient with high plasma levels of apolipoprotein CII.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000; 20: 2329
- Overexpression of apolipoprotein CII causes hypertriglyceridemia in transgenic mice.J Clin Invest. 1994; 93: 1683-1690
- Interaction of lipoprotein lipase with phospholipid vesicles. Role of apolipoprotein C-II and heparin.Biochim Biophys Acta. 1981; 665: 504-510
- Opposing effects of apolipoproteins E and C on lipoprotein binding to low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein.J Biol Chem. 1990; 265: 10771-10779
- Mechanisms of inhibition by apolipoprotein C of apolipoprotein E-dependent cellular metabolism of human triglyceride-rich lipoproteins through the low density lipoprotein receptor pathway.J Biol Chem. 1991; 266: 18259-18267
- Modulation of lipoprotein B binding to the LDL receptor by exogenous lipids and apolipoproteins CI, CII, CIII, and.E. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1995; 15: 963-971
- Apolipoproteins C-II and C-III inhibit selective uptake of low- and high-density lipoprotein cholesteryl esters in HepG2 cells.Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2005; 37: 1308-1318
- The relationship between high density lipoprotein subclass profile and apolipoprotein concentrations.J Endocrinol Invest. 2011; 34: 461-472
- Relationship between apolipoprotein C-III concentrations and high-density lipoprotein subclass distribution.Metabolism. 2009; 58: 668-674
- Untangling the role of amyloid in atherosclerosis.Curr Opin Lipidol. 2006; 17: 541-547
- Impact of triglyceride levels beyond low-density lipoprotein cholesterol after acute coronary syndrome in the PROVE IT-TIMI 22 trial.J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008; 51: 724-730
- A 12-week, prospective, open-label analysis of the effect of rosuvastatin on triglyceride-rich lipoprotein metabolism in patients with primary dyslipidemia.Clin Ther. 2007; 29: 1403-1414
- Alterations in the high density lipoprotein phenotype and HDL-associated enzymes in subjects with metabolic syndrome.Lipids. 2009; 44: 9-16
- Small dense LDL cholesterol and apolipoproteins C-II and C-III in non-diabetic obese subjects with metabolic syndrome.Arc Med Sci. 2008; 3: 263-269
- Plasma lipoproteins, apoproteins and cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetic patients. A nine-year follow-up study.Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2003; 13: 46-51
- Association between serum apolipoprotein C(II) concentration and coronary heart disease.Prev Med. 2002; 35: 42-47
- Elevated ratio of maternal plasma ApoCIII to ApoCII in preeclampsia.Reprod Sci. 2011; 18: 493-502
- Impaired lipid metabolism in aged mice as revealed by fasting-induced expression of apolipoprotein mRNAs in the liver and changes in serum lipids.Gerontology. 2004; 50: 206-215
- Changes in serum apolipoprotein and lipoprotein profile induced by chronic alcohol consumption and withdrawal: determinant effect on heart disease?.Clin Chem. 1996; 42: 1666-1675
- Effect of a high carbohydrate diet on the content of apolipoproteins C-II, C-III and E in human plasma high density lipoprotein subfractions.Atherosclerosis. 1983; 46: 341-352
- Alterations in levels and interrelations of plasma apolipoproteins induced by diet.Metabolism. 1976; 25: 261-275
- Raisins and walking alter appetite hormones and plasma lipids by modifications in lipoprotein metabolism and up-regulation of the low-density lipoprotein receptor.Metabolism. 2009; 58: 120-128
- Effect of short-term low- and high-fat diets on low-density lipoprotein particle size in normolipidemic subjects.Metabolism. 2012; 61: 76-83
- Improvement in insulin sensitivity following a 1-year lifestyle intervention program in viscerally obese men: contribution of abdominal adiposity.Metabolism. 2012; 61: 262-272
- Effects of a low-calorie diet associated with weight loss on lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) activity in healthy obese women.Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2008; 18: 477-482
- Nutrition, body weight and deterioration of familial combined hyperlipidemia.Coll Antropol. 2006; 30: 777-782
- Visfatin/PBEF and atherosclerosis-related diseases.Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2010; 8: 12-28
- Circulating visfatin levels in healthy preterm infants are independently associated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.Metabolism. 2011; 60: 389-393
- Vaspin and visfatin/Nampt are interesting interrelated adipokines playing a role in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus.Metabolism. 2011; 60: 63-70
- Increased plasma visfatin levels in subjects with the metabolic syndrome.Eur J Clin Invest. 2008; 38: 71-72
- Increased plasma levels of visfatin/pre-B cell colony-enhancing factor in obese and overweight patients with metabolic syndrome.J Endocrinol Invest. 2007; 30: 323-326
- Increased plasma visfatin concentration is a marker of an atherogenic metabolic profile.Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2011; ([in press])
- Parallel increase of plasma apoproteins C-II and C-III in type 2 diabetic patients.Diabet Med. 2009; 26: 736-739
- Relation of plasma glucose levels to serum lipids and apolipoproteins levels in middle and old age males.Hua Xi Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao. 2001; 32: 382-384
Ren Y, Tian H, Liu B, et al, The abnormal changes of apolipoprotein(s) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Hua Xi Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao 2001; 32:48-51, 69.
- Alterations of lipids and apolipoprotein CIII in very low density lipoprotein subspecies in type 2 diabetes.Diabetologia. 2005; 48: 1207-1215
- Lipids and renal disease.J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006; 17: S145-S147
- Lipid abnormalities associated with end-stage renal disease.Semin Dial. 2006; 19: 32-40
- Lipoproteins and apolipoproteins during the progression of chronic renal disease.Nephron. 1988; 50: 103-111
- Relationship between adiposity and cardiovascular risk factors in prevalent hemodialysis patients.J Ren Nutr. 2009; 19: 357-364
- Presence of Apo B48, and relative Apo CII deficiency and Apo CIII enrichment in uremic very-low density lipoproteins.Ann Biol Clin (Paris). 1989; 47: 497-501
- Lipids and apolipoproteins change during the progression of chronic renal failure.Clin Nephrol. 1992; 38: 264-270
- Lipoprotein abnormalities in chronic renal failure and dialysis patients.Blood Purif. 1996; 14: 262-272
- Lipoprotein composition in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus with chronic renal failure: effect of kidney and pancreas transplantation.Metabolism. 1994; 43: 333-347
- Inflammation, high-density lipoprotein and cardiovascular dysfunction.Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2011; 24: 265-272
- Leptospirosis is associated with markedly increased triglycerides and small dense low-density lipoprotein and decreased high-density lipoprotein.Lipids. 2011; 46: 953-960
- Altered lipid, apolipoprotein, and lipoprotein profiles in inflammatory bowel disease: consequences on the cholesterol efflux capacity of serum using Fu5AH cell system.Metabolism. 2006; 55: 980-988
- Efficacy and safety of cholesterol-lowering treatment: prospective meta-analysis of data from 90,056 participants in 14 randomised trials of statins.Lancet. 2005; 366: 1267-1278
- Effect of statins on risk of coronary disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.JAMA. 1999; 282: 2340-2346
- Pleiotropic effects of statins—clinical evidence.Curr Pharm Des. 2009; 15: 479-489
- High doses of rosuvastatin are superior to low doses of rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate or n-3 fatty acids in mixed dyslipidemia.Lipids. 2011; 46: 521-528
- Effect of rosuvastatin treatment on plasma visfatin levels in patients with primary hyperlipidemia.Eur J Pharmacol. 2008; 578: 249-252
- Statins and heart failure.Angiology. 2008; 59: 58S-61S
- Dose-dependent effect of rosuvastatin treatment on HDL-subfraction phenotype in patients with primary hyperlipidemia.J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2009; 14: 5-13
- Starting with rosuvastatin in primary hyperlipidemia–Is there more than lipid lowering?.Angiology. 2005; 56: 585-592
- Treating to target patients with primary hyperlipidaemia: comparison of the effects of ATOrvastatin and ROSuvastatin (the ATOROS study).Curr Med Res Opin. 2006; 22: 1123-1131
- Statin-associated adverse effects beyond muscle and liver toxicity.Atherosclerosis. 2007; 195: 7-16
- Effects of CS-514 on serum lipoprotein lipid and apolipoprotein levels in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia.Metabolism. 1987; 36: 475-479
- Effects of CS-514 on plasma lipids and lipoprotein composition in hypercholesterolemic subjects.Atherosclerosis. 1988; 71: 95-101
- A plant stanol yogurt drink alone or combined with a low-dose statin lowers serum triacylglycerol and non-HDL cholesterol in metabolic syndrome patients.J Nutr. 2009; 139: 1143-1149
- Effects of combination therapy with estrogen plus simvastatin on lipoprotein metabolism in postmenopausal women with type IIa hypercholesterolemia.Atherosclerosis. 2000; 150: 103-111
- Lipid and apolipoprotein levels and distribution in patients with hypertriglyceridemia: effect of triglyceride reductions with atorvastatin.Metabolism. 2000; 49: 167-177
- Pharmacogenetic analysis of lipid responses to rosuvastatin in Chinese patients.Pharmacogenet Genomics. 2010; 20: 634-637
- Effects of rosuvastatin on electronegative LDL as characterized by capillary isotachophoresis: the ROSARY Study.J Lipid Res. 2009; 50: 1832-1841
- Treatment of hyperlipidaemia with fenofibrate and related fibrates.Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2008; 17: 1599-1614
- Fenofibrate plus simvastatin (fixed-dose combination) for the treatment of dyslipidaemia.Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2011; 12: 1945-1958
- Combination of fenofibrate with non-statin drug regimens.Curr Pharm Des. 2010; 16: 3401-3416
- Pleiotropic effects of fenofibrate.Curr Pharm Des. 2009; 15: 517-528
- Effect of orlistat, micronised fenofibrate and their combination on metabolic parameters in overweight and obese patients with the metabolic syndrome: the FenOrli study.Curr Med Res Opin. 2005; 21: 1997-2006
- The effect of orlistat and fenofibrate, alone or in combination, on small dense LDL and lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 in obese patients with metabolic syndrome.Atherosclerosis. 2007; 193: 428-437
- Effect of rimonabant, micronised fenofibrate and their combination on cardiometabolic risk factors in overweight/obese patients: a pilot study.Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2008; 9: 2741-2750
- The effects of orlistat and fenofibrate, alone or in combination, on high-density lipoprotein subfractions and pre-beta1-HDL levels in obese patients with metabolic syndrome.Diabetes Obes Metab. 2008; 10: 476-483
- Fenofibrate: metabolic and pleiotropic effects.Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2005; 3: 87-98
- Fenofibrate reduces lipoprotein associated phospholipase A2 mass and oxidative lipids in hypertriglyceridemic subjects with the metabolic syndrome.Am Heart J. 2008; 155: e499-416
- Atorvastatin and fenofibrate have comparable effects on VLDL-apolipoprotein C-III kinetics in men with the metabolic syndrome.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008; 28: 1831-1837
- Effect of fenofibrate on adiponectin and inflammatory biomarkers in metabolic syndrome patients.Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009; 17: 504-509
- Fenofibrate reduces systemic inflammation markers independent of its effects on lipid and glucose metabolism in patients with the metabolic syndrome.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010; 95: 829-836
- Effects of fenofibrate and ezetimibe, both as monotherapy and in coadministration, on cholesterol mass within lipoprotein subfractions and low-density lipoprotein peak particle size in patients with mixed hyperlipidemia.Metabolism. 2008; 57: 796-801
- The effects of rosuvastatin alone or in combination with fenofibrate or omega 3 fatty acids on inflammation and oxidative stress in patients with mixed dyslipidemia.Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2011; 12: 2605-2611
- Effect of fenofibrate treatment on type III hyperlipoproteinemia.Am J Med. 1987; 83: 71-74
- Apolipoproteins C-II and C-III metabolism in hypertriglyceridemic patients. Effect of a drastic triglyceride reduction by combined diet restriction and fenofibrate administration.Atherosclerosis. 1989; 77: 139-149
- Analysis of 6-month effect of orlistat administration alone or with combination with fenofibrate, on triglyceride-rich lipoprotein metabolism in overweight and obese patients with metabolic syndrome.J Clin Lip. 2008; 2: 279-284
- Effects of adding fenofibrate (200 mg/day) to simvastatin (10 mg/day) in patients with combined hyperlipidemia and metabolic syndrome.Am J Cardiol. 2003; 91: 956-960
- The molecular mechanisms underlying the reduction of LDL apoB-100 by ezetimibe plus simvastatin.J Lipid Res. 2007; 48: 699-708
- Ezetimibe decreases SREBP-1c expression in liver and reverses hepatic insulin resistance in mice fed a high-fat diet.Metabolism. 2011; 60: 617-628
- Pleiotropic effects of ezetimibe: do they really exist?.Eur J Pharmacol. 2010; 633: 62-70
- Combinations of ezetimibe with nonstatin drug regimens affecting lipid metabolism.Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2011; 9: 355-366
- Effect of ezetimibe monotherapy on the concentration of lipoprotein subfractions in patients with primary dyslipidaemia.Curr Med Res Opin. 2007; 23: 1169-1176
- The effect of orlistat and ezetimibe, alone or in combination, on serum LDL and small dense LDL cholesterol levels in overweight and obese patients with hypercholesterolaemia.Curr Med Res Opin. 2008; 24: 1919-1929
- The effects of ezetimibe and orlistat, alone or in combination, on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) subclasses and HDL-associated enzyme activities in overweight and obese patients with hyperlipidaemia.Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2008; 9: 3151-3158
- Effects of ezetimibe, either alone or in combination with atorvastatin, on serum visfatin levels: a pilot study.Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2008; 9: 1829-1837
- Role of ezetimibe in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.World J Hepatol. 2011; 3: 265-267
- Ezetimibe improves postprandial hyperlipidaemia in patients with type IIb hyperlipidaemia.Eur J Clin Invest. 2009; 39: 689-698
- The effects of ezetimibe and/or orlistat on triglyceride-rich lipoprotein metabolism in obese hypercholesterolemic patients.Lipids. 2010; 45: 445-450
- Lipid-lowering drugs acting at the level of the gastrointestinal tract.Curr Pharm Des. 2009; 15: 490-516
- The effects of orlistat on metabolic parameters and other cardiovascular risk factors.Diabetes Metab. 2005; 31: 15-22
- Effects of sibutramine and orlistat on mood in obese and overweight subjects: a randomised study.Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2008; 18: 207-210
- Effects of orlistat, alone or combined with hypolipidemic drugs, on cardiovascular risk factors.Clinical Lipidology. 2009; 4: 331-341
- Combination drug treatment in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.World J Hepatol. 2010; 2: 139-142
- Combination drug treatment in obese diabetic patients.World J Diabetes. 2010; 1: 8-11
- What restricts the clinical use of nicotinic acid?.Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2011; 9: 521-530
- Effects of nicotinic acid on concentrations of serum apolipoproteins B, C-I, C-II, C-III and E in hyperlipidemic patients.Acta Med Scand. 1988; 224: 319-327
- Effect of acarbose on postprandial lipid metabolism in type 2 diabetes mellitus.Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1998; 41: 49-55
- Evaluation of new apolipoprotein C-II and apolipoprotein C-III automatized immunoturbidimetric kits.Clin Biochem. 2006; 39: 935-941
- Immunoturbidimetric techniques for quantifying apolipoproteins CII and CIII.Clin Chem. 1986; 32: 1969-1972
- Quantification of human plasma apolipoproteins C-I, C-II, and C-III by radioimmunoassays.Mayo Clin Proc. 1993; 68: 657-664
- Lowering apolipoprotein CIII delays onset of type 1 diabetes.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011; 108: 10685-10689
- Apolipoprotein C-II and lipoprotein lipase show a temporal and geographic correlation with surfactant lipid synthesis in preparation for birth.BMC Dev Biol. 2010; 10: 111
- Emerging targets for the treatment of dyslipidemia.Curr Med Chem. 2011; 18: 909-922
- Antisense oligonucleotides as therapeutics for hyperlipidaemias.Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2005; 5: 907-917
Article info
Publication history
Published online: February 10, 2012
Accepted:
December 8,
2011
Received:
July 26,
2011
Footnotes
Author contributions: AA Kei and TD Filippatos prepared and wrote the review. V Tsimihodimos and MS Elisaf corrected and were responsible for the final editing of the manuscript.
Identification
Copyright
© 2012 Elsevier Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
